In December of last year, researcher Jens Steube presented a big improvement in the efficiency to crack passwords using SHA-1 at the Passwords^12 conference in Oslo. In short, by focusing on the word expansion phase of SHA-1, he was able to reduce the number of operations by 21%. The reason why this is possible is that under some given conditions, a number of XOR operations have always a fixed result or cancel each other out. The result is that if you arrange your work in a smart way, password cracking can be speeded up with a factor of 25%.
His results seem amazing, especially because they seem so basic at the same time as many researchers have been trying to break SHA-1 for so many years. Indeed, as Joachim Strömbergson noted, SHA-1 was published in 1995, almost twenty years ago. One would expect that finding such simplifications would be the first thing a researcher would try to do. There are a few factors that should be considered though:
First of all, Jens Steube was able to make these reductions in the context of brute-force password cracking. Brute-force password cracking is basically a cipher-text only attack, and then it's indeed possible to arrange the chosen plaintexts such that you can exploit the optimisations that Jens Steube discovered. Cryptanalysis, however, usually concentrates on trying to find a collision in the hash function, and except for brute-force birthday attacks, this means in most cases you can't choose the plaintext any way you like.
Second, even though Jens Steube was able to find some shortcuts in the SHA-1 algorithm under a certain set of conditions, it doesn't seem that he was able to reduce the fundamental complexity of the SHA-1 algorithm. I'm no expert on SHA-1 and therefore in no position to really consider how good the attack is, but the number of conditions may just as well outweigh the progress. But I'll come back to that shortly.
Third, and finally, as impressing as a reduction of operations by 21% may sound, it doesn't represent such a big progress in the world of cryptology. In that world, progress isn't measured in percentages, but on an exponential scale. The base for that scale is usually 2, so that the results can be related to the number of bits in the search space. For SHA-1, the digest size is 160, which means that the search space is 2160. A brute-force birthday attack would then roughly require about 280 cipher-texts to be calculated in order to find a collision. A reduction of 21% would then be equivalent to reducing this number to 279.66. This number should be compared to the best known attack on SHA-1, by Marc Stevens, which requires 260 SHA-1 operations. Or, if you prefer to work with percentages, Marc Stevens' attack is equivalent to reducing the calculation time of the brute-force birthday attack by 99.9999%.
Having said all this, I hope the reader doesn't have the impression that I don't think Jens Steube's attack is impressive. Because it really is. Cryptanalysis is a one-sided arms race, where the attackers invent new weapons against old algorithms all the time. Jens Steube's attack is such a new weapon against SHA-1. Often, new weapons can be combined with old weapons to build even better weapons. This means that in the worst case, Jens Steube's attack brings no progress except for password cracking. But we can hope that his findings can be combined with somebody else's attack, like e.g. the one from Marc Stevens, or give some other inspiration to improve it. If some sort of combination of attacks is possible, one can probably expect that the number of operations could be reduced from 260 to 259.66.
Theoretically possible, but very unlikely because of the preconditions needed to apply the attack, would be a reduction of 21% of the complexity to attack SHA-1, not just the calculation of SHA-1. That would reduce the complexity from 260 to 247.4. However, the conditions to apply Jens Steube's attack may represent some added complexity or extra calculations needed to actually find a collision, and therefore increase the number again. But maybe, just maybe, Jens Steube's attack contains a clue to reduce it even further, to make breaking SHA-1 trivial. I don't think that's very likely, but you never know.
woensdag 9 januari 2013
vrijdag 7 september 2012
Making the Programming Pain Stop
Johannes Brodwall is organizing a panel debate at the upcoming JavaZone 2012 conference under the title “Making the programming pain stop”. I'm not on the panel, but here are my ideas about what's causing programming pain and how we can stop it.
Let's start by defining programming pain. I think this is what we feel when things are not what they're supposed to be. I'm thinking mainly of frameworks or tools that make us write extra code or unnecessary lines in configuration files. Or having to support code we're not able to understand –it doesn't matter whether we're talking about fixing bugs or adding new features–, because the method and variable names don't make sense, there's virtually no documentation, or much too much, and no unit tests are present or they're testing the wrong things. I think we've all been there. If not, just pick one of your own projects you worked on two or three years ago and see for yourself.
Now how can we make the programming pain stop? Johannes Brodwall has two suggestions: either firing all architects and project managers, or asking the developers to “grow the **** up”. I think the former is unrealistic, and won't make a big difference anyway. (I'm sorry to break you the news about that, architects and project managers.) But to all developers smiling right now: if it would have made a difference, it's probably going to be one for the worse, because I really think the big problem is that developers indeed need to grow up and get their act together.
For one thing, I'm still amazed that there are still so many developers out there thinking that writing automated unit tests is a waste of time. I can accept that “pure” TDD maybe doesn't work for you, and that you prefer to write your automated unit tests after you write your source code, but I'm going to be very suspicious about the quality of both your source code and your unit tests. But it's still better than no automated unit tests at all.
I know many project managers have to take part of the blame on this one too. Some of them still think automated unit testing is just gold plating. In my experience, it's very hard to write unit tests for anything close to gold plating. How would you do that, write a unit test for functionality you're going to add “just in case” or because it's nice to have? The unit test will either reveal that the functionality you want to add is useless, or that it isn't gold plating at all. I think that one of the main reasons why TDD speeds up development time –it does– is that it will keep developers from gold plating their code.
But there is more that developers should start doing. Unit testing and TDD in itself is not enough. Aim for high test coverage—not just system-wide, but in every single class you write. And think hard about why you really can't unit test the parts that aren't covered by automated unit tests yet. Use static code analysis tools with a sensible set of rules, and be strict about it. And if you're ready for it, have a look at mutation testing.
There are other things too that developers often are sloppy about. Is it really that hard to pick good names for all your methods and variables? You can afford to use ten seconds on every name, and if you can't come up with a good name after ten seconds, ask yourself whether you need the method or the variable at all. The fact that you can't come up with a good name may be an indication that you don't know what you're doing. Use some time to put in some documentation, but don't use time to put in incorrect, incomplete and/or unnecessary documentation. And this includes putting in a sensible message when you commit your code to your version control system.
While we're talking about version control systems: merge your code to the right branch(es) straight away. Don't even consider doing it later (like when you'll have more time—I mean, really?) or when you can do all the merges in one go. It's not going to work, you'll have lots of conflicts, and since you'll be out of context, you probably will have to use more time to fix things then if you did it right away. And sending a merge job to one of your colleagues is like asking to be fired on the spot.
Update you issue tracking system as soon as you start working on a new task, and every time it changes status. Add comments that will help testers to test the task, and chances are they will understand much faster why your task really is done, instead of sending it back to you because they couldn't figure out what's changed and how it should be tested.
Finally, if you're one of the hot shots in your company developing a framework or some services that will be used by other developers, how about some sensible defaults? Do I really have to specify that all my numbers are decimal? (Oh, by the way, this text uses the Latin alphabet.) And if you're a developer working on a project where all the numbers are octal, write a convenience method instead of spreading the number eight all over your code.
All the things listed above cause a lot of programming pain, not just for your colleagues, but for yourself too. Except for the TDD part, no architect and no project manager are involved in any of this, and no architect or project manager will ever stop you from doing these things correctly. So why don't you do so? It's amazing how much time you can save doing boring stuff if you put in a few seconds extra doing the boring stuff immediately and correctly.
Let's start by defining programming pain. I think this is what we feel when things are not what they're supposed to be. I'm thinking mainly of frameworks or tools that make us write extra code or unnecessary lines in configuration files. Or having to support code we're not able to understand –it doesn't matter whether we're talking about fixing bugs or adding new features–, because the method and variable names don't make sense, there's virtually no documentation, or much too much, and no unit tests are present or they're testing the wrong things. I think we've all been there. If not, just pick one of your own projects you worked on two or three years ago and see for yourself.
Now how can we make the programming pain stop? Johannes Brodwall has two suggestions: either firing all architects and project managers, or asking the developers to “grow the **** up”. I think the former is unrealistic, and won't make a big difference anyway. (I'm sorry to break you the news about that, architects and project managers.) But to all developers smiling right now: if it would have made a difference, it's probably going to be one for the worse, because I really think the big problem is that developers indeed need to grow up and get their act together.
For one thing, I'm still amazed that there are still so many developers out there thinking that writing automated unit tests is a waste of time. I can accept that “pure” TDD maybe doesn't work for you, and that you prefer to write your automated unit tests after you write your source code, but I'm going to be very suspicious about the quality of both your source code and your unit tests. But it's still better than no automated unit tests at all.
I know many project managers have to take part of the blame on this one too. Some of them still think automated unit testing is just gold plating. In my experience, it's very hard to write unit tests for anything close to gold plating. How would you do that, write a unit test for functionality you're going to add “just in case” or because it's nice to have? The unit test will either reveal that the functionality you want to add is useless, or that it isn't gold plating at all. I think that one of the main reasons why TDD speeds up development time –it does– is that it will keep developers from gold plating their code.
But there is more that developers should start doing. Unit testing and TDD in itself is not enough. Aim for high test coverage—not just system-wide, but in every single class you write. And think hard about why you really can't unit test the parts that aren't covered by automated unit tests yet. Use static code analysis tools with a sensible set of rules, and be strict about it. And if you're ready for it, have a look at mutation testing.
There are other things too that developers often are sloppy about. Is it really that hard to pick good names for all your methods and variables? You can afford to use ten seconds on every name, and if you can't come up with a good name after ten seconds, ask yourself whether you need the method or the variable at all. The fact that you can't come up with a good name may be an indication that you don't know what you're doing. Use some time to put in some documentation, but don't use time to put in incorrect, incomplete and/or unnecessary documentation. And this includes putting in a sensible message when you commit your code to your version control system.
While we're talking about version control systems: merge your code to the right branch(es) straight away. Don't even consider doing it later (like when you'll have more time—I mean, really?) or when you can do all the merges in one go. It's not going to work, you'll have lots of conflicts, and since you'll be out of context, you probably will have to use more time to fix things then if you did it right away. And sending a merge job to one of your colleagues is like asking to be fired on the spot.
Update you issue tracking system as soon as you start working on a new task, and every time it changes status. Add comments that will help testers to test the task, and chances are they will understand much faster why your task really is done, instead of sending it back to you because they couldn't figure out what's changed and how it should be tested.
Finally, if you're one of the hot shots in your company developing a framework or some services that will be used by other developers, how about some sensible defaults? Do I really have to specify that all my numbers are decimal? (Oh, by the way, this text uses the Latin alphabet.) And if you're a developer working on a project where all the numbers are octal, write a convenience method instead of spreading the number eight all over your code.
All the things listed above cause a lot of programming pain, not just for your colleagues, but for yourself too. Except for the TDD part, no architect and no project manager are involved in any of this, and no architect or project manager will ever stop you from doing these things correctly. So why don't you do so? It's amazing how much time you can save doing boring stuff if you put in a few seconds extra doing the boring stuff immediately and correctly.
donderdag 12 april 2012
Testing Better than the TSA
Yesterday I came across a posting titled “Testing like the TSA” by David at 37signals. He makes a case against over-testing, and argues that developers who fall in love with TDD have a tendency to do that in the beginning. Of course, when somebody learns or discovers a new tool, there's always the danger that he or she uses it too much – in fact, I'd say it's part of the learning process to find out where the new tool is applicable and where not. But judging from the seven don'ts of testing David lists in his posting, my impression is that he should rather try to do more testing than less. Here are my comments:
1. Don’t aim for 100% coverage.
Sure, but then again, what's 100% test coverage? In any system there will be places where it doesn't make sense to write tests because the code is trivial or writing the tests will require more energy than you'll ever be able to save if one of the tests would find a bug. Typical examples of the latter include interfaces, like the GUI or the main entry method from the command-line. But at other times, 100% line coverage isn't enough, and even 100% branch coverage won't do it because it leaves some important paths through your system untested. And to be honest, I've found myself writing unit tests to check logging messages because they were a vital part of the system.
I know something is wrong when a system has 100% test coverage, but the core classes should be pretty close to 100%. As a consequence, I do aim for 100% test coverage, even though I know I won't reach it. It's just like aiming for the bull's eye, even when you're not good at darts. If you're not aiming for 100% (or the bull's eye), then what are you aiming for, and what will the result be?
2. Code-to-test ratios above 1:2 is a smell, above 1:3 is a stink.
That just doesn't make sense. I'd say a code-to-test ratio below 1:2 sounds very wrong. Just think of a single function point, like e.g. a condition: you'll need at least one positive and one negative case to be able to say your code does what it's supposed to do. And this is really just the minimum. I think that if you're doing unit testing right, you should probably have something between two and five unit tests per function point.
3. You’re probably doing it wrong if testing is taking more than 1/3 of your time.
4. You’re definitely doing it wrong if it’s taking up more than half.
That's probably right, but only because your test code should be much simpler than the system you're trying to implement.
5. Don’t test standard Active Record associations, validations, or scopes. Reserve integration testing for issues arising from the integration of separate elements (aka don’t integration test things that can be unit tested instead).
I don't know about those Active Records (I'm a Java programmer), but I agree that integration testing should be about integration testing.
6. Don’t use Cucumber unless you live in the magic kingdom of non-programmers-writing-tests (and send me a bottle of fairy dust if you’re there!)
I agree on this one. I like the idea of Cucumber, and I've seen some great talks about it at conferences, but I've never seen it used in a real system and have no idea how I would ever be able to use it in any system at all.
7. Don’t force yourself to test-first every controller, model, and view (my ratio is typically 20% test-first, 80% test-after).
I do force myself, and I know it works for me, but I also know it doesn't work for everybody. I can live with that (some can't). But as a consequence, my ratio is pretty different. In a typical project, where I can write code exactly the way I want, I break the TDD rule about writing tests first in a different way than David: I often find myself writing up two or three unit tests before I start programming, especially when I start working on a new component or on a new feature. Sometimes I have to write a second or a third unit test to get the first one right, e.g. in order to be able to decide how the component's interface should look like. I find that easier than getting it wrong the first time, and then having to start refactoring everything five minutes later. But I guess this makes my ratio something like 40% multiple tests first, 40% single tests first, and 20% tests after. The reason why I still have a number of unit tests that I write after the code, is that test coverage reports and mutation testing often point me to branches and paths in my code that haven't been tested well enough.
I don't like testing TSA-style either, i.e. writing lots of tests just to get a high test coverage. That's coverage theater, like Davids puts it, and usually leads only to a large number of brittle tests that break down after the first refactoring. But we should aim high when we write unit tests, and try to do better than the TSA. I'd rather put in another five minutes to get the tests right, than having to spend an hour four months later trying to find out where the bug is hidden…
1. Don’t aim for 100% coverage.
Sure, but then again, what's 100% test coverage? In any system there will be places where it doesn't make sense to write tests because the code is trivial or writing the tests will require more energy than you'll ever be able to save if one of the tests would find a bug. Typical examples of the latter include interfaces, like the GUI or the main entry method from the command-line. But at other times, 100% line coverage isn't enough, and even 100% branch coverage won't do it because it leaves some important paths through your system untested. And to be honest, I've found myself writing unit tests to check logging messages because they were a vital part of the system.
I know something is wrong when a system has 100% test coverage, but the core classes should be pretty close to 100%. As a consequence, I do aim for 100% test coverage, even though I know I won't reach it. It's just like aiming for the bull's eye, even when you're not good at darts. If you're not aiming for 100% (or the bull's eye), then what are you aiming for, and what will the result be?
2. Code-to-test ratios above 1:2 is a smell, above 1:3 is a stink.
That just doesn't make sense. I'd say a code-to-test ratio below 1:2 sounds very wrong. Just think of a single function point, like e.g. a condition: you'll need at least one positive and one negative case to be able to say your code does what it's supposed to do. And this is really just the minimum. I think that if you're doing unit testing right, you should probably have something between two and five unit tests per function point.
3. You’re probably doing it wrong if testing is taking more than 1/3 of your time.
4. You’re definitely doing it wrong if it’s taking up more than half.
That's probably right, but only because your test code should be much simpler than the system you're trying to implement.
5. Don’t test standard Active Record associations, validations, or scopes. Reserve integration testing for issues arising from the integration of separate elements (aka don’t integration test things that can be unit tested instead).
I don't know about those Active Records (I'm a Java programmer), but I agree that integration testing should be about integration testing.
6. Don’t use Cucumber unless you live in the magic kingdom of non-programmers-writing-tests (and send me a bottle of fairy dust if you’re there!)
I agree on this one. I like the idea of Cucumber, and I've seen some great talks about it at conferences, but I've never seen it used in a real system and have no idea how I would ever be able to use it in any system at all.
7. Don’t force yourself to test-first every controller, model, and view (my ratio is typically 20% test-first, 80% test-after).
I do force myself, and I know it works for me, but I also know it doesn't work for everybody. I can live with that (some can't). But as a consequence, my ratio is pretty different. In a typical project, where I can write code exactly the way I want, I break the TDD rule about writing tests first in a different way than David: I often find myself writing up two or three unit tests before I start programming, especially when I start working on a new component or on a new feature. Sometimes I have to write a second or a third unit test to get the first one right, e.g. in order to be able to decide how the component's interface should look like. I find that easier than getting it wrong the first time, and then having to start refactoring everything five minutes later. But I guess this makes my ratio something like 40% multiple tests first, 40% single tests first, and 20% tests after. The reason why I still have a number of unit tests that I write after the code, is that test coverage reports and mutation testing often point me to branches and paths in my code that haven't been tested well enough.
I don't like testing TSA-style either, i.e. writing lots of tests just to get a high test coverage. That's coverage theater, like Davids puts it, and usually leads only to a large number of brittle tests that break down after the first refactoring. But we should aim high when we write unit tests, and try to do better than the TSA. I'd rather put in another five minutes to get the tests right, than having to spend an hour four months later trying to find out where the bug is hidden…
zaterdag 30 april 2011
Class A, B and C Speakers at Conferences
The ROOTS 2011 poster just reminded me of a comment Allan Kelly had at the beginning of his talk at the ACCU 2011 conference in Oxford a couple of weeks ago. He said every conference has class A, B and C speakers. What follows is more or less what he said, mixed with some of my own thoughts.
I wouldn't call this a revolutionary insight, but I've never heard it expressed before. In his particular case, it was his excuse for not having attended Tom Gilb's talk earlier that day, because he had gone to Emily Winch's talk instead. This evening, I was reminded of his comment again, because the ROOTS 2011 poster illustrates so well who the class A, B and C speakers at the conference.
- The class A speakers are the big names, the ones that sell the tickets for the conference. On the ROOTS 2011 poster, there are four of them (Michael Feathers, Dan North, Jim Webber and Jurgen Appelo), and you recognize them by the huge font for their names. Often they are the keynote speakers.
- The class B speakers are the not so big names, but still regular speakers at conferences. Allan Kelly is one of them. Sometimes they're the local stars, as opposed to the international stars above, or they're the stars in a smaller niche. They provide good content –otherwise they wouldn't be class B speakers– and deliver the bulk of the material at the conference, but often they're a bit predictable too. Their names are on the ROOTS 2011 poster too, but in the smaller font.
- The class C speakers are all the others, including the speakers that will have a talk but didn't make it to the ROOTS 2011 poster. (I'm one of them, hoping that one day, I'll become a class B speaker.)
I wouldn't call this a revolutionary insight, but I've never heard it expressed before. In his particular case, it was his excuse for not having attended Tom Gilb's talk earlier that day, because he had gone to Emily Winch's talk instead. This evening, I was reminded of his comment again, because the ROOTS 2011 poster illustrates so well who the class A, B and C speakers at the conference.
donderdag 28 april 2011
Upgrading to Ubuntu 11.04
Half a year has passed since the release of Ubuntu 10.11, so this evening it was time to upgrade to Ubuntu 11.04. It took some time to download all the components, and then to install them and clean up the system, but as far as the upgrading process is concerned, I had no problems to report.
I'm not sure yet whether I like the new user interface (Unity), or whether I'll switch back to GNOME. I'll probably give it a try for a couple of days, just to get some experience with it, and decide then on what I will do.
Even though there were no problems during the upgrading process itself, there are/were a few issues on my laptop once Ubuntu 11.04 was installed. Here's an overview:
I'm not sure yet whether I like the new user interface (Unity), or whether I'll switch back to GNOME. I'll probably give it a try for a couple of days, just to get some experience with it, and decide then on what I will do.
Even though there were no problems during the upgrading process itself, there are/were a few issues on my laptop once Ubuntu 11.04 was installed. Here's an overview:
- I use SeaMonkey to edit blog articles, and it seems that spell check is badly broken. I'm probably suffering from bug #762905.
- Some plug-ins are missing in Firefox because of some compatibility issues. I suppose I'll be able to pick them up over the next couple of days.
dinsdag 12 oktober 2010
Upgrading to Ubuntu 10.10
One of the tings I like the best about Ubuntu, is its six month release cycle. If there's a problem with an application, chances are it will be fixed within a matter of days. However, if things are so bad that they can't be fixed with a simple update, six months isn't such a long period to wait. Often that's just what I do too, instead of trying to install another application.
What's an even bigger joy with the six month release cycle, is that you always have a lot of new and better functionality to long for, but without being as disruptive as e.g. a Windows update tends to be. Compared to the hassle it was every time I had to upgrade to a newer Windows version, upgrading to another Ubuntu release is as easy as eating cake. That doesn't you don't need to make back-ups before you start to upgrade, but you won't need to spend a lot of time trying to find applications that are compatible with your new OS and at the same time can handle your old files.
There are, however, always small things that have to be done once you've upgraded to a new release of Ubuntu. Most of them are simple reconfigurations. Here's a list of things I had to do after upgrading to Ubuntu 10.10:
What's an even bigger joy with the six month release cycle, is that you always have a lot of new and better functionality to long for, but without being as disruptive as e.g. a Windows update tends to be. Compared to the hassle it was every time I had to upgrade to a newer Windows version, upgrading to another Ubuntu release is as easy as eating cake. That doesn't you don't need to make back-ups before you start to upgrade, but you won't need to spend a lot of time trying to find applications that are compatible with your new OS and at the same time can handle your old files.
There are, however, always small things that have to be done once you've upgraded to a new release of Ubuntu. Most of them are simple reconfigurations. Here's a list of things I had to do after upgrading to Ubuntu 10.10:
- For one reason or another, the GLText screensaver configuration has been set back to a default text showing the name of my computer and the version number of the kernel in every single release. As a consequence, I'm getting good at setting its configuration file /usr/share/applications/screensavers/gltext.desktop back to include the line Exec=/usr/lib/xscreensaver/gltext -root -no-wander -no-spin -program "<my-custom-script.sh>"
- Adding all accounts to Gwibber again. I was of course expecting having to reauthenticate, but erasing all information about all accounts just seems very clumsy. Besides from that, the new version of Gwibber seems to be a big improvement.
- I had to change the default proportional font in Thunderbird back to serif. For one reason or another, it had fallen back to sanserif.
zaterdag 1 mei 2010
Customizing Your Keyboard Layout in Ubuntu 10.04
In Ubuntu, it is possible to customize your keyboard layout in a very simply way. In fact, all you have to do is find the right configuration file, make a few changes, and you're done. Here's how you can customize your keyboard layout:
First, you'll have to find the file that defines your keyboard layout. In Ubuntu 10.04, these files are located in a directory called /usr/share/X11/xkb/symbols. Most files use a land code as a name, with the exception of some vendor specific definition files, and a few more generic ones.
The format of these files is pretty self-explanatory. Most files define a basic layout, which is the default one, and some variations. Each layout can include another layout from the same file, or from another file. Keys are defined by their row and column name, and can contain up to four values (in the simple case). The first value is the character you'll get when you just press the key, the second one when you combine the key with the Shift key, the third one when you combine it with the Alt Gr key, and the fourth one when you combine the key with both the Shift and the Alt Gr key.
In my particular case, I use a standard Norwegian keyboard, i.e. the basic layout in the file called no. Since I have to write mails in Esperanto from time to time, I need access to characters like «ŝ» (s with circumflex) and «ĉ» (c with circumflex). They are easy to produce on a standard Norwegian keyboard in Ubuntu: just press the dead circumflex key («^») first, and s or c afterwards. The circumflex key is called “dead” since it doesn't produce a character until another key is pressed. It's more difficult to produce «ŭ» (u with a breve)—in fact, as far as I know, it's impossible to produce it directly from a Norwegian keyboard.
For me, it makes the most sense to put the dead breve key («˘») together with the dead diaeresis key («"»), the circumflex and the tilde («~»). There is however no definition for the dead diaeresis key in the Norwegian keyboard layout file, so that's not where we have to make our change. In fact, since the basic Norwegian keyboard layout uses latin(type2) as its basis, we'll have to look in the latin file and see whether we can find the definition of the diaeresis key there. In fact, it's right the in the type2 definition, at the following line:
Indeed, the dead diaeresis key is on the fourth row (encoded as AD), and the 12th key from the left. Now how can we change this definition to produce a breve instead of a caron («ˇ») when we combine the key with Alt Gr and Shift? In order to do that, we'll have to change the definition as follows:
In order to keep the dead caron key, we could also change the definition for the AD11, the key that normally produces the Norwegian letter å, as follows:
Once you've made the changes, save the file, and reboot your computer in order for the changes to take effect. When the system comes back up, you should be able to produce the character «ŭ» using the diaeresis key in combination with Alt Gr and Shift, and typing u afterwards.
First, you'll have to find the file that defines your keyboard layout. In Ubuntu 10.04, these files are located in a directory called /usr/share/X11/xkb/symbols. Most files use a land code as a name, with the exception of some vendor specific definition files, and a few more generic ones.
The format of these files is pretty self-explanatory. Most files define a basic layout, which is the default one, and some variations. Each layout can include another layout from the same file, or from another file. Keys are defined by their row and column name, and can contain up to four values (in the simple case). The first value is the character you'll get when you just press the key, the second one when you combine the key with the Shift key, the third one when you combine it with the Alt Gr key, and the fourth one when you combine the key with both the Shift and the Alt Gr key.
In my particular case, I use a standard Norwegian keyboard, i.e. the basic layout in the file called no. Since I have to write mails in Esperanto from time to time, I need access to characters like «ŝ» (s with circumflex) and «ĉ» (c with circumflex). They are easy to produce on a standard Norwegian keyboard in Ubuntu: just press the dead circumflex key («^») first, and s or c afterwards. The circumflex key is called “dead” since it doesn't produce a character until another key is pressed. It's more difficult to produce «ŭ» (u with a breve)—in fact, as far as I know, it's impossible to produce it directly from a Norwegian keyboard.
For me, it makes the most sense to put the dead breve key («˘») together with the dead diaeresis key («"»), the circumflex and the tilde («~»). There is however no definition for the dead diaeresis key in the Norwegian keyboard layout file, so that's not where we have to make our change. In fact, since the basic Norwegian keyboard layout uses latin(type2) as its basis, we'll have to look in the latin file and see whether we can find the definition of the diaeresis key there. In fact, it's right the in the type2 definition, at the following line:
key <AD12> { [dead_diaeresis, dead_circumflex, dead_tilde, dead_caron ] };
Indeed, the dead diaeresis key is on the fourth row (encoded as AD), and the 12th key from the left. Now how can we change this definition to produce a breve instead of a caron («ˇ») when we combine the key with Alt Gr and Shift? In order to do that, we'll have to change the definition as follows:
key <AD12> { [dead_diaeresis, dead_circumflex, dead_tilde, dead_breve ] };
In order to keep the dead caron key, we could also change the definition for the AD11, the key that normally produces the Norwegian letter å, as follows:
key <AD11>{ [ aring, Aring, dead_abovering, dead_caron ] };
Once you've made the changes, save the file, and reboot your computer in order for the changes to take effect. When the system comes back up, you should be able to produce the character «ŭ» using the diaeresis key in combination with Alt Gr and Shift, and typing u afterwards.
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